The Chinese analogous of the Greek semantic field of 'being' appears much more complex. Here we try to outline its more relevant features. The references for our analysis of the classic Chinese usage of being and negatives are (SCARPARI 1981), ((DOBSON 1959), (DOBSON 1962)), (GRAHAM 1967), that we will try to translate in terms of 'flat semantics' . The whole field can be splitted in at least three subfields: you/wu, fei, bu.
1) YOU/WU
Let us begin with you: it is the standard form translated as 'to be', in the meaning of 'to appear', also as 'to have', translatable as the dative construction of 'to be'. It is the radical 74, and the earliest versions of the logogram depict ''the moon, a month''. In terms of 'flat semantics' you seems an operator setting the following term on the background of the previous term: <background> you <new term> = in the background it appears the new term. Thus we get the (i) dative construction: X you Y = X has got Y = to X it is Y = on the image of X it appears the image of Y, (ii) existential construction, sometimes explicitly and sometimes implicitly the subject is ''the world''. you Y = there is Y = on the neutral background of the 'world' the image of Y, (iii) locative construction in X you Y = in the place X the image of Y (also in figured usage: ten you three = there are three among ten (Tao te ching, 50)), (iv) 'metaphysic' usage: being, existence. ''you denotes the mother of 10000 things'' ''steady of you the borders will be seen'' (Tao te ching,1) ''to rule the you of today ''(Tao te ching, 14) ''they are born by you ''(Tao te ching, 40)
Polar opposite of you is wu. The logogram is the radical 71. Beyond its verb usage, it can be also an adverb or a preposition. In terms of 'flat semantics' perhaps it operates the positive addition of the opposite: it creates the privative form of qualities and abstractions. (i) as preposition it means ''without'', (ii) as negative of 'to be', commonly in the dative construction , as ''to be without'' , ''not to belong'': X wu Y = to X it is not Y = X does not belong Y = X is without Y = on the image of X it appears the opposite of Y, wu Y = it is without Y
(iii) ''there is not, it does not exist'': wu Y =Y does not exist. (iv) ''not being'', ''non-existence'': ''wu denotes the beginning of sky and earth.'' ''Steadily of wu the wonder will be seen ''(Tao te ching, 1) * Interesting the composite forms: wu you = (in the world does not appear the appearing of) = there must not be you wu <one another > <produce> = Being and not-being generate each other (2) ** Parallel form of wu is wang, whose central meaning is however ''to lose''. Opposite of wang it is also zai, which means ''to stay in, to remain''.
Another antonym of wu is wei, which means ''to be a, to be as, to act as, to behave as, to become a, to be considered as, to fill the role of, to satisfy the requirements of''. In terms of 'flat semantics' it adds a feature to a previously given subject. This makes clear its opposite relation with wu, which added a negative feature. * The composite form wu wei is one of the most known Chinese topos: it is the core of Taoism, but its embedding in Chinese thinking is much deeper and wider. Its normal translation is something as ''non-action'', but we have to point out the 'active' character of wu. Thus it does not mean simple 'passivity', but the creative nature of the Chinese negative (see above: non-being denotes the beginning of sky and earth), and hence the opposition to the 'unnatural, artificial, external' action. Thus: wu wei <then> wu bu wei = not acting, nothing is not done (Tao te ching, 48)
2) FEI
fei is the classic negative copular verb. It is the radical 175, maybe stemming from an earlier logogram depicting a bird, wings not facing each other. In 'flat semantics' it is a pure opposition. (i) the negative copula in the construction X fei Y, where its action is 'nexal', that is acts on the whole sentence and not only on the following term. Thus its translation could be 'it is not the case that X is Y'.(ii) connected employments carry the meaning of ''wrong, bad, to blame, to condemn, to disown''. (iii) as adverb to negate nouns, with the meaning of 'contrary to'. fei customs = what is contrary to the customs, fei gone = alive, extant (iv) as determined term when a proposition is stated categorically to be false: fei Y = 'it is not so that Y' . (v) as consequence/cause 'not because', occur between the terms.
The most important positive antonym of fei is the ''nominal'' (or ''determinative'' sentence), whose scheme is the simple statement X Y = X is (a) Y. Or also the simple Y = to be a Y for example: <son > = to be a good son (Mengzi) In terms of 'flat semantics' it is the simple juxtaposition of the second image on the first. If the sentence has got a more categorical aspect, turning the statement in a true 'judgement', most of all to express a judgement of equality, kind, belonging to, existence in virtue of, the scheme of the sentence becomes: X Y yeh. Yeh is a pause marker used also in nominalised clauses, sometimes meaning 'and, even, also, besides'. It derives from the radical 5 meaning 'one', and its earliest form represents maybe a ''cobra''(thus expressing an affirmation of danger) or ''female external genitals'' (a symbol for the 'gate of being').
* We can quote the composite forms: X fei Y (yeh) = X is-not (a)Y fei Y yeh = it is not the case that Y X fei yeh = X is-not (it)
* In the above section 6 we stressed some features of the Moist ''non-being''. They are based on composite forms as the following: wu fei = lack of pure opposition (has not contradictions, according with Needham ((NEEDHAM 1954-), 181)) you fei <but> bu fei = it has the opposites but not the opposition (contains all the negations, but has no contradiction, according with Needham ((NEEDHAM 1954-), 181)) you wu = existence of lacking (existence of non-existence, according with Needham ((NEEDHAM 1954-), 181))
Another positive antonym of fei is shi. It derives from the radical 72 (the sun), and in its earliest form represents the ''sun with a foot and others strokes below, that credibly compose cheng (correct, straight, fair, square)'', thus its original meaning is ''not illusory'' ''that which exists under the sun''. (i) the earliest meaning is ''this, the aforementioned, the one in question'', as, for example, in the Tao te ching: shi X =this (these) X shi Y yeh = this is Y (ii) Other connected meanings are ''yes, right''. Thus it can be opposed to fei as the pair ''right/wrong''. It enters in other logograms meaning ''solid, substantial, real ,true, sincere''. (iii)In modern times shi became a copula, giving another kind of opposition with fei, as in the construction (opposite of the analogous for fei): X shi Y yeh = X is (a)Y X shi yeh = X (is) it but also (see in the following for bu): X bu shih Y = X is not a Y
3. BU
The most common negative adverb is bu. It is used to negate both verbs and adjectives (remind that in classic Chinese there is not a sharp distinction between the grammatical categories. It creates a privative form of states, processes and actions, a failure to take some action, it is the negation of a particular instance, with a deliberative character. Its logogram represents a ''flower-head on a stalk with two drooping leaves''. Apparently it is only an homophone. Its usage with modal verbs is quite simple: bu <can> bu = it must (definitely) * A connected form is fu, substantially representing the construction bu <it > --> fu: fu <give> = he did not give it. It is composed by the radical 57 (a bow, curved) and the radical 55 (hands joined).
** Another negative adverb is wu, meaning ''not, do not'', used for negation of verbs (injunctive or hortatory). Its logogram is the radical 80: ''a black cloth cap''. A connected form is: wu <it> -- > wu ** Another negative adverb is wei, meaning ''not yet'' (lack of accomplishment), ''never'' (lack of existence), used for negation of verbs (indicative), expressing the negation of all conceivable instances, focuses whether an action occurred or not. Its logogram is the radical 75 ''wood, trees, without feeling''. * The positive antonym of wei is yi, a final particle to denote the 'change' in a verbal sentence. * The composite form displays the different negatives roles: X fei bu Y yeh X is not not Y(verb) X bu fei Y X is not not (a) Y wei bu there is not and there never has been wu you there would not be bu wei yeh fei bu <can > yeh = it is that you do not do it, and not that you are not able to do it (Mengzi)
Acknowledgement. I am very grateful to Gianna Avellis for her earliest comments, and I owe a special debt to Donald Gillies, whose suggestions and corrections have been invaluable for the development of these and the following reports.